Country (China) Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Country (China) - Research Paper Example As a function of seeking to understand and find the current economic situation that China faces today, the following analysis will not only provide a brief historical glimpse into the determinant factors which it helps to define China within the way it can currently be understood, the analysis will also be contingent upon discussing the outlook and ramifications of economic policies that are currently engaged within the People’s Republic of China. Through such a unit of analysis, it is the hope of this author that the reader will gain a more informed understanding with respect to the determinants of Chinese economic policy as well as the threats and potential weaknesses that the nation faces within the immediate and distant future. Firstly, in seeking to answer the question of whether or not the People’s Republic of China can be considered as a triad nation, the reader must understand that triad nations are defined as those nations that only represent 8% of the world's total population – but account for 50% of its gross domestic product. Due to the fact that the Chinese population is currently in excess of 1.3 6 billion individuals, it cannot be assumed or understood that China is in any way indicative of a triad nation. Whereas it is true that the GDP of China is massive, the population differential that is thus far been discussed ultimately convinces the reader that China cannot be considered as such. Currently, China exhibits an unbelievably low unemployment rate of around 4.1%. Before discussing or analyzing this statistic to a further degree, it must be understood and appreciated that many of the statistics that come out the People’s Republic of China are ultimately suspect. Without casting further aspersions upon the way in which the People’s Republic of China is administered, it must be understood that the Communist Party is ultimately the sole power that directs the fiscal and economic policy within the People’s Republic of China. As such, the level and extent to which this entity can be relied upon for verifiable truth and reasonable statistics may well be quite limited. However, notwithstanding this fact, the rate of unemployment that is exhibited within the People’s Republic of China is astoundingly low. By means of comparison, the gross domestic product of the People’s Republic of China is currently in excess of $8.20 trillion dollars. Somewhat surprisingly, the GDP per capita, measured within the same 2012 time period, only stands at $6090. As can relatively be noted, the GDP per capita as compared to the total gross domestic product of the entire nation is quite low; blending a level of understanding with regards to why she labor is so abundantly available within China and helping the reader to come to an understanding of why the People’s Republic of China continues to the a producer of so many consumer goods that require simple and complex levels of application. Many economists and businessmen alike have termed China’s rapid growth as an economic miracle. Part of the reason for this is the fact that the GDP growth rate between the period of 1990 and 2010 averaged approximately 12%. Although the GDP growth rate currently stands at a lower level due to the 2007/2008 economic slowdown,

The impact of the different responses of residents may have upon sex Essay

The impact of the different responses of residents may have upon sex workers in the UK - Essay Example The studies each involved areas that had â€Å"street-based sex work†.4 The relevant areas were identified as Westside, Eastside, Riverside, Southside and Central. The research involved random interviews with a variety of residents and the results were mixed. Some residents expressed what was categorized as â€Å"extreme/proactive intolerance†.5 This typology was objected to sex workers on the basis of moral beliefs and often acted out in the form of â€Å"street patrols† and â€Å"vigilantism†.6 Another typology discerned by Pitcher et al was characterised by â€Å"modest intolerance†.7 These residents did not agree with sex work and generally wanted sex workers out of their communities and neighbourhoods. However, they were prepared to accept prevention policies.8 Some residents were ambivalent in that they were sympathetic toward sex workers and at the same time concerned. ... ir parents in the morning are exposed to girls in the street.10 Some residents were characterized by Pitcher et al as â€Å"proactive /support† minded.11 These residents were amenable to coexistence and would participate in programmes designed to respond to the issues. The idea was to find a solution that would accommodate sex workers and to set parameters that would be tolerated by all.12 A similar study was conducted by Williams in two big cities in England. This survey concluded that the responses of residents to sex workers were also diverse. Some residents were entirely â€Å"oblivious† or â€Å"passive† toward sex workers and their conduct. On the other hand, some residents were â€Å"violent and/or otherwise harmful to the women involved.†13 Some residents felt justified in their negative responses to sex workers on the grounds that sex workers were harming the environment, for instance, they irresponsibly littered the place with used condoms, syrin ged, used underwear and used sanitary provisions. Other residents were particularly intolerant to the perceived association with illicit drugs and other crimes and generally felt that sex workers were responsible for â€Å"the decline in the quality of neighbourhood life† and the decline in â€Å"the value of residents’ property†.14 In the Police Research Group Crime Prevention Unit Series Paper, Matthews reports that during the 1980s the increase in street prostitution and its associated kerb-crawling became particularly disturbing for women who were frequently â€Å"harassed†. One such resident expressed a desire to move away from the area but was unable to do so because her parents were unable to sell their home. The resident reported that a number of her female friends and associated shared her feelings of being

Software testing issues Related to project Failure or Success Essay

Software testing issues Related to project Failure or Success - Essay Example Such is the case that if the defects are transferred all the way to the final acceptance testing phase of the project life cycle, the greater risk of time consumption and costing increases. Consequently, small effort advanced towards quality assurance will help reduce expenses to a greater degree with regard to detecting and rectifying the defects. To better understand the effectiveness of the processes of agile software; it is important to gather facts on defects identified in the previous projects and also examine how the same defects can be eliminated following process improvements and application of newer methodologies. This paper presents comprehensive view on the defect prevention techniques and practices that can be followed in agile software development. In handling this topic the paper will look into related work and further discusses the need for defect deterrence. Additionally, the work will address handle issues of improvement workflow along with the illustration of various stages, the root cause analysis and determination of precautionary action. Agile software defect simply refers to â€Å"Imperfections in agile software development process that would cause agile software to fail to meet the desired expectations†. During the long and complex process of agile software development, lot of defects frequently occurs. One misleading notion is that defects crop into the process at the start of the cycle and is eliminated all through the remaining development phases. The truth is that defects form part of the development process from the very beginning to the end, a factor that makes its prevention an essential part in the agile software process quality improvement. Defect prevention (DP) refers to quality improvement process whose aim is to discover regular causes of defects and prevent their reoccurrence through alteration of the relevant process (es).

The impact of the different responses of residents may have upon sex Essay

The impact of the different responses of residents may have upon sex workers in the UK - Essay Example The studies each involved areas that had â€Å"street-based sex work†.4 The relevant areas were identified as Westside, Eastside, Riverside, Southside and Central. The research involved random interviews with a variety of residents and the results were mixed. Some residents expressed what was categorized as â€Å"extreme/proactive intolerance†.5 This typology was objected to sex workers on the basis of moral beliefs and often acted out in the form of â€Å"street patrols† and â€Å"vigilantism†.6 Another typology discerned by Pitcher et al was characterised by â€Å"modest intolerance†.7 These residents did not agree with sex work and generally wanted sex workers out of their communities and neighbourhoods. However, they were prepared to accept prevention policies.8 Some residents were ambivalent in that they were sympathetic toward sex workers and at the same time concerned. ... ir parents in the morning are exposed to girls in the street.10 Some residents were characterized by Pitcher et al as â€Å"proactive /support† minded.11 These residents were amenable to coexistence and would participate in programmes designed to respond to the issues. The idea was to find a solution that would accommodate sex workers and to set parameters that would be tolerated by all.12 A similar study was conducted by Williams in two big cities in England. This survey concluded that the responses of residents to sex workers were also diverse. Some residents were entirely â€Å"oblivious† or â€Å"passive† toward sex workers and their conduct. On the other hand, some residents were â€Å"violent and/or otherwise harmful to the women involved.†13 Some residents felt justified in their negative responses to sex workers on the grounds that sex workers were harming the environment, for instance, they irresponsibly littered the place with used condoms, syrin ged, used underwear and used sanitary provisions. Other residents were particularly intolerant to the perceived association with illicit drugs and other crimes and generally felt that sex workers were responsible for â€Å"the decline in the quality of neighbourhood life† and the decline in â€Å"the value of residents’ property†.14 In the Police Research Group Crime Prevention Unit Series Paper, Matthews reports that during the 1980s the increase in street prostitution and its associated kerb-crawling became particularly disturbing for women who were frequently â€Å"harassed†. One such resident expressed a desire to move away from the area but was unable to do so because her parents were unable to sell their home. The resident reported that a number of her female friends and associated shared her feelings of being

Types of surveillance Essay Example for Free

Types of surveillance Essay Surveillance may be physical, which involves watching a particular entity physically, known as visual surveillance; or it may be achieved by listening (this is known as aural surveillance). Surveillance may also be achieved through the use of image amplification devices like field glasses, binoculars, satellite cameras and so on (Bogonikolos). Electronic circuits have been developed to complement physical surveillance, for example, the Closed-Circuit TV, also known as CCTV, VCR, phone bugging, e-databases and proximity cards have been developed to facilitate surveillance. Apart from physical surveillance, other types of surveillance exist, for example communications surveillance exists which include mail covers and phone interception (Bogonikolos). Another type of surveillance is known as data surveillance or Dataveillance which involves the systematic use of personal data systems to monitor actions and communications of people and suspects. It is less expensive than physical and electronic surveillance because of the automation features it has. Dataveillance may be personal or mass. Personal dataveillance occurs where a person has been identified as a suspect or is of particular interest while a large group of people are monitored in mass Dataveillance. This mass dataveillance is done to protect the entire population and to deter people from causing harm to others. Tools and Techniques of Surveillance Dataveillance Techniques are used for checking data to make sure that it conforms to certain standards and specifications. Front-end verification (FEV) is a method of data surveillance that involves checking the information supplied by an applicant with other additional sources of information about that person in order to identify discrepancies (Bogonikolos). When front-end verification is applied to everybody, mass dataveillance is said to have taken place. Mass dataveillance is a continuous process that involves the following: authentication and screening of all transactions, audit of individuals, and the profiling of persons and transactions to identify possible threats of terrorism. Mechanisms that may be used to achieve this include computer data matching, in which personal records are compared and analyzed. These methods may however result in the black listing people that may be innocent. Data surveillance is cost-effective. Physical surveillance is expensive because it requires many resources. Surveillance attempts to track what people do, say and where they go (Bogonikolos). Visual Surveillance Closed-Circuit TV (CCTV) is one of the most common electronic techniques of visual surveillance. CCTVs may be deployed on roads, railway stations, ATMS, petrol stations, lifts, lobbies and areas that are easily prone to attack. Recording may be done in real-time or time-lapse mode. Cameras may also be used and this is extremely portable. Video Surveillance can help to reduce the risk of attack, protect citizens form attack, monitor crime and subsequently gain crucial evidence that may lead to the identification and prosecution of suspects. Cameras may also be deployed in a covert manner so that people are not aware that it exists (Bogonikolos).

History of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents

History of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents Biological warfare (BW), also known as germ warfare, is the use of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, other disease-causing biological agents, or the toxins produced by them as biological weapons (or bioweapons). There is a clear overlap between biological warfare and chemical warfare, as the use of toxins produced by living organisms is considered under the provisions of both the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention and the Chemical Weapons Convention. Toxins, which are of organic origin, are often called midspectrum agents. A biological weapon may be intended to kill, incapacitate, or seriously impair a person, group of people, or even an entire population. It may also be defined as the material or defense against such employment. Biological warfare is a military technique that can be used by nation-states or non-national groups. In the latter case, or if a nation-state uses it clandestinely, it may also be considered bioterrorism. History: Biological warfare has been practiced repeatedly throughout history. Before the 20th century, the use of biological agents took three major forms: Deliberate poisoning of food and water with infectious material Use of microorganisms, toxins or animals, living or dead, in a weapon system Use of biologically inoculated fabrics The ancient world: The earliest documented incident of the intention to use biological weapons is recorded in Hittite texts of 1500-1200 B.C, in which victims of plague were driven into enemy lands. Although the Assyrians knew of ergot, a parasitic fungus of rye which produces ergotism when ingested, there is no evidence that they poisoned enemy wells with the fungus, as has been claimed. According to Homers epic poems about the legendary Trojan War, the Iliad and the Odyssey, spears and arrows were tipped with poison. During the First Sacred War in Greece, in about 590 BC, Athens and the Amphictionic League poisoned the water supply of the besieged town of Kirrha (near Delphi) with the toxic plant hellebore. The Roman commander Manius Aquillus poisoned the wells of besieged enemy cities in about 130 BC. During the 4th century BC Scythian archers tipped their arrow tips with snake venom, human blood, and animal feces to cause wounds to become infected. There are numerous other instances of the use of plant toxins, venoms, and other poisonous substances to create biological weapons in antiquity. In 184 B.C, Hannibal of Carthage had clay pots filled with venomous snakes and instructed his soldiers to throw the pots onto the decks of Pergamene ships. In about AD 198, the city of Hatra (near Mosul, Iraq) repulsed the Roman army led by Septimius Severus by hurling clay pots filled with live scorpions at them. Medieval biological warfare: When the Mongol Empire established commercial and political connections between the Eastern and Western areas of the world, its Mongol armies and merchant caravans probably inadvertently brought bubonic plague from central Asia to the Middle East and Europe. The Black Death swept through Eurasia, killing approximately one third to one half of the population and changing the course of Asian and European history. During the Middle Ages, victims of the bubonic plague were used for biological attacks, often by flinging corpses and excrement over castle walls using catapults. In 1346, the bodies of Mongol warriors of the Golden Horde who had died of plague were thrown over the walls of the besieged Crimean city of Kaffa (now Theodosia). It has been speculated that this operation may have been responsible for the advent of the Black Death in Europe. At the siege of Thun lEveque in 1340, during the Hundred Years War, the attackers catapulted decomposing animals into the besieged area. Modern times: The 18th Century: The Native American population was decimated after contact with the Old World due to the introduction of many different fatal diseases. There are two documented cases of alleged and attempted germ warfare. The first, during a parley at Fort Pitt on June 24, 1763, Ecuyer gave representatives of the besieging Delawares two blankets and a handkerchief that had been exposed to smallpox, hoping to spread the disease to the Natives in order to end the siege. William Trent, the militia commander, left records that clearly indicated that the purpose of giving the blankets was to Convey the Smallpox to the Indians. British commander Lord Jeffrey Amherst and Swiss-British officer Colonel Henry Bouquet, whose correspondence referenced the idea of giving smallpox-infected blankets to Indians in the course of Pontiacs Rebellion. Historian Francis Parkman verifies four letters from June 29, July 13, 16 and 26th, 1763. Excerpts: Commander Lord Jeffrey Amherst writes July 16, 1763, P.S. You will Do well to try to Inocculate the Indians by means of Blankets, as well as to try Every other method that can serve to Extirpate this Execrable Race. I should be very glad your Scheme for Hunting them Down by Dogs could take Effect, Colonel Henry Bouquet replies July 26, 1763, I received yesterday your Excellencys letters of 16th with their Inclosures. The signal for Indian Messengers, and all your directions will be observed. While the intent for biological warfare is clear, there is a debate among historians as to whether this actually took place despite Bouquets affirmative reply to Amherst and each having written to the other about it twice. Smallpox transmitted to Native American tribes could have been due to the transfer of the disease to blankets during transportation. Historians have been unable to establish whether or not this plan was implemented, particularly in light of the fact that smallpox was already present in the region, and that scientific knowledge of disease at that time had yet to discover bacteria or develop an understanding of plague vectors. Regardless of whether this plan was carried out, trade and combat provided ample opportunity for transmission of the disease. See also: Small pox during Pontiacs Rebellion. The 19th Century: In 1834 Cambridge Diarist Richard Henry Dana visited San Francisco on a merchant ship. His ship traded many items including blankets with Mexicans and Russians who had established outposts on the northern side of the San Francisco Bay. Local histories document that the California smallpox epidemic began at the Russian fort soon after they left. Blankets were a popular trading item, and the cheapest source of them was second-hand blankets which were often contaminated. During the American Civil War, General Sherman reported that Confederate forces shot farm animals in ponds upon which the Union depended for drinking water. This would have made the water unpleasant to drink, although the actual health risks from dead bodies of humans and animals which did not die of disease are minimal. Jack London in his story Yah! Yah! Yah! describes a punitive European expedition to a Pacific island deliberately exposing the Polynesian population to Measles, of which many of them died s:South Sea Tales/Yah! Yah! Yah!. While much of the material for Londons South Sea Tales is derived from his personal experience in the region, it is not certain that this particular incident is historical. The 20th Century: During the First World War, Germany pursued an ambitious biological warfare program. Using diplomatic pouches and couriers, the German General Staff supplied small teams of saboteurs in the Russian Duchy of Finland, and in the then-neutral countries of Romania, the US and Argentina. In Finland, Scandinavian freedom fighters mounted on reindeer placed ampules of anthrax in stables of Russian horses in 1916. Anthrax was also supplied to the German military attache in Bucharest, as was Glanders, which was employed against livestock destined for Allied service. German intelligence officer and US citizen Dr. Anton Casimir Dilger established a secret lab in the basement of his sisters home in Chevy Chase, Maryland, that produced Glanders which was used to infect livestock in ports and inland collection points including, at least, Newport News, Norfolk, Baltimore, and New York, and probably St. Louis and Covington, Kentucky. In Argentina, German agents also employed Glanders in the port of Buenos Aires and also tried to ruin wheat harvests with a destructive fungus. During the 1948 Israel War of Independence, Red Cross reports raised suspicion that the Jewish Haganah militia had released Salmonella typhi bacteria into the water supply for the city of Acre, causing an outbreak of typhoid among the inhabitants. Egyptian troops later captured disguised Haganah soldiers near wells in Gaza, whom they executed for allegedly attempting another attack. Israel denies these allegations. During the Cold War, US conscientious objectors were used as consenting test subjects for biological agents in a program known as Operation Whitecoat. There were also many unpublicized tests carried out on the public during the Cold War. E120 biological bomblet, developed before the U.S. signed the Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention Considerable research on the topic was performed by the United States (see US Biological Weapon Testing), the Soviet Union, and probably other major nations throughout the Cold War era, though it is generally believed that biological weapons were never used after World War II. This view was challenged by China and North Korea, who accused the United States of large-scale field testing of biological weapons, including the use of disease-carrying insects against them during the Korean War (1950-1953). Biological agents: Biological warfare is the deliberate use of disease and natural poisons to incapacitate humans. It employs pathogens as weapons. Pathogens are the micro-organism, whether bacterial, viral or protozoic, that cause disease. There are four kinds of biological warfare agents: bacteria, viruses, rickettsiae and fungi. Biological weapons are distinguished by being living organisms, that reproduce within their host victims, who then become contagious with a deadly, if weakening, multiplier effect. Toxins in contrast do not reproduce in the victim and need only the briefest of incubation periods; they kill within a few hours. Biological Weapons Characteristics: Anti-personnel BW: Ideal characteristics of biological weapons targeting humans are high infectivity, high potency, non-availability of vaccines, and delivery as an aerosol. Diseases most likely to be considered for use as biological weapons are contenders because of their lethality (if delivered efficiently), and robustness (making aerosol delivery feasible). The biological agents used in biological weapons can often be manufactured quickly and easily. The primary difficulty is not the production of the biological agent but delivery in an effective form to a vulnerable target. For example, anthrax is considered an effective agent for several reasons. First, it forms hardy spores, perfect for dispersal aerosols. Second, pneumonic (lung) infections of anthrax usually do not cause secondary infections in other people. Thus, the effect of the agent is usually confined to the target. A pneumonic anthrax infection starts with ordinary cold symptoms and quickly becomes lethal, with a fatality rate that is 90% or higher. Finally, friendly personnel can be protected with suitable antibiotics. A mass attack using anthrax would require the creation of aerosol particles of 1.5 to 5 micrometres. Too large and the aerosol would be filtered out by the respiratory system. Too small and the aerosol would be inhaled and exhaled. Also, at this size, nonconductive powders tend to clump and cling because of electrostatic charges. This hinders dispersion. So the material must be treated to insulate and discharge the charges. The aerosol must be delivered so that rain and sun does not rot it, and yet the human lung can be infected. There are other technological difficulties as well. Diseases considered for weaponization, or known to be weaponized include anthrax , ebola, Marburg virus, plague , cholera , tularemia, brucellosis, Q fever, Bolivian hemorrhagic fever, Coccidioides mycosis , Glanders, Melioidosis, Shigella, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, typhus , Psittacosis, yellow fever , Japanese B encephalitis , Rift Valley fever, and smallpox [19][31]. Naturally-occurring toxins that can be used as weapons include ricin, SEB, botulism toxin, saxitoxin, and many mycotoxins. The organisms causing these diseases are known as select agents. In the United States, their possession, use, and transfer are regulated by the Centers for Disease Control and Preventions Select Agent Program. Anti-agriculture BW: Biological warfare can also specifically target plants to destroy crops or defoliate vegetation. The United States and Britain discovered plant growth regulators (i.e., herbicides) during the Second World War, and initiated an herbicidal warfare program that was eventually used in Malaya and Vietnam in counter insurgency. Though herbicides are chemicals, they are often grouped with biological warfare as bioregulators in a similar manner as biotoxins. Scorched earth tactics or destroying livestock and farmland were carried out in the Vietnam war and Eelam War in Sri Lanka. The United States developed an anti-crop capability during the Cold War that used plant diseases (bioherbicides, or mycoherbicides) for destroying enemy agriculture. It was believed that destruction of enemy agriculture on a strategic scale could thwart Sino-Soviet aggression in a general war. Diseases such as wheat blast and rice blast were weaponized in aerial spray tanks and cluster bombs for delivery to enemy water sheds in agricultural regions to initiate epiphytotics (epidemics among plants). When the United States renounced its offensive biological warfare program in 1969 and 1970, the vast majority of its biological arsenal was composed of these plant diseases. In 1980s Soviet Ministry of Agriculture had successfully developed variants of foot-and-mouth disease and rinderpest against cows, African swine fever for pigs, and psittacosis to kill chicken. These agents were prepared to spray them down from tanks attached to airplanes over hundreds of miles. The secret program was code-named Ecology Biodefence: Role of public health departments and disease surveillance: It is important to note that all of the classical and modern biological weapons organisms are animal diseases, the only exception being smallpox. Thus, in any use of biological weapons, it is highly likely that animals will become ill either simultaneously with, or perhaps earlier than humans. Indeed, in the largest biological weapons accident known- the anthrax outbreak in Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg) in the Soviet Union in 1979, sheep became ill with anthrax as far as 200 kilometers from the release point of the organism from a military facility in the southeastern portion of the city (known as Compound 19 and still off limits to visitors today, see Sverdlovsk Anthrax leak). Thus, a robust surveillance system involving human clinicians and veterinarians may identify a bioweapons attack early in the course of an epidemic, permitting the prophylaxis of disease in the vast majority of people (and/or animals) exposed but not yet ill. For example in the case of anthrax, it is likely that by 24 36 hours after an attack, some small percentage of individuals (those with compromised immune system or who had received a large dose of the organism due to proximity to the release point) will become ill with classical symptoms and signs (including a virtually unique chest X-ray finding, often recognized by public health officials if they receive timely reports). By making these data available to local public health officials in real time, most models of anthrax epidemics indicate that more than 80% of an exposed population can receive antibiotic treatment before becoming symptomatic, and thus avoid the moderately high mortality of the disease. Identification of bioweapons: The goal of biodefense is to integrate the sustained efforts of the national and homeland security, medical, public health, intelligence, diplomatic, and law enforcement communities. Health care providers and public health officers are among the first lines of defense. In some countries private, local, and provincial (state) capabilities are being augmented by and coordinated with federal assets, to provide layered defenses against biological weapons attacks. During the first Gulf War the United Nations activated a biological and chemical response team, Task Force Scorpio, to respond to any potential use of weapons of mass destruction on civilians. The traditional approach toward protecting agriculture, food, and water: focusing on the natural or unintentional introduction of a disease is being strengthened by focused efforts to address current and anticipated future biological weapons threats that may be deliberate, multiple, and repetitive. The growing threat of biowarfare agents and bioterrorism has led to the development of specific field tools that perform on-the-spot analysis and identification of encountered suspect materials. One such technology, being developed by researchers from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), employs a sandwich immunoassay, in which fluorescent dye-labeled antibodies aimed at specific pathogens are attached to silver and gold nanowires. Biological agent A sampling of Bacillus anthracis-Anthrax A biological agent is a bacterium, virus, prion, fungus, or biological toxin that can be used in bioterrorism or biological warfare. More than 1200 different kinds of biological agents have been described and studied to date. Applying a slightly broader definition, some eukaryotes (for example parasites) and their associated toxins can be considered as biological agents. Biological agents have the ability to adversely affect human health in a variety of ways, ranging from relatively mild allergic reactions to serious medical conditions, even death. These organisms are ubiquitous in the natural environment; they are found in water, soil, plants, and animals. Because many biological agents reproduce rapidly and require minimal resources for preservation, they are a potential danger in a wide variety of occupational settings. Antibiotic resistance: Antibiotic resistance is a specific type of drug resistance when a microorganism has the ability of withstanding the effects of antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance evolves via natural selection acting upon random mutation, but it can also be engineered by applying an evolutionary stress on a population. Once such a gene is generated, bacteria can then transfer the genetic information in a horizontal fashion (between individuals) by conjugation, transduction, or transformation. Many antibiotic resistance genes reside on plasmids, facilitating their transfer. If a bacterium carries several resistance genes, it is called multiresistant or, informally, a superbug. The term antimicrobial resistance is sometimes used to explicitly encompass organisms other than bacteria. Antibiotic resistance can also be introduced artificially into a microorganism through laboratory protocols, sometimes used as a selectable marker to examine the mechanisms of gene transfer or to identify individuals that absorbed a piece of DNA that included the resistance gene and another gene of interest. Causes: The widespread use of antibiotics both inside and outside of medicine is playing a significant role in the emergence of resistant bacteria. They are often used in animals but also in other industries which at least in the case of agricultural use lead to the spread of resistant strains to human populations. In some countries antibiotics are sold over the counter without a prescription which compounds the problem. In human medicine the major problem of the emergence of resistant bacteria is due to misuse and overuse of antibiotics by doctors as well as patients. Other practices contributing towards resistance include the addition of antibiotics to the feed of livestock. Household use of antibacterials in soaps and other products, although not clearly contributing to resistance, is also discouraged (as not being effective at infection control). Also unsound practices in the pharmaceutical manufacturing industry can contribute towards the likelihood of creating antibiotic resistant stra ins. Certain antibiotic classes are highly associated with colonisation with superbugs compared to other antibiotic classes. The risk for colonisation increases if there is a lack of sensitivity (resistance) of the superbugs to the antibiotic used and high tissue penetration as well as broad spectrum activity against good bacteria. In the case of MRSA, increased rates of MRSA infections are seen with glycopeptides, cephalosporins and especially quinolones. In the case of colonisation with C difficile the high risk antibiotics include cephalosporins and in particular quinolones and clindamycin. Mechanisms: Antibiotic resistance can be a result of horizontal gene transfer,[30] and also of unlinked point mutations in the pathogen genome and a rate of about 1 in 108 per chromosomal replication. The antibiotic action against the pathogen can be seen as an environmental pressure; those bacteria which have a mutation allowing them to survive will live on to reproduce. They will then pass this trait to their offspring, which will result in a fully resistant colony. The four main mechanisms by which microorganisms exhibit resistance to antimicrobials are: Drug inactivation or modification: e.g. enzymatic deactivation of Penicillin G in some penicillin-resistant bacteria through the production of ÃŽÂ ²-lactamases. Alteration of target site: e.g. alteration of PBP-the binding target site of penicillins-in MRSA and other penicillin-resistant bacteria. Alteration of metabolic pathway: e.g. some sulfonamide-resistant bacteria do not require para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), an important precursor for the synthesis of folic acid and nucleic acids in bacteria inhibited by sulfonamides. Instead, like mammalian cells, they turn to utilizing preformed folic acid. Reduced drug accumulation: by decreasing drug permeability and/or increasing active efflux (pumping out) of the drugs across the cell surface. Conclusion: Specific consensus recommendations are made regarding the diagnosis of anthrax, indications for vaccination, therapy for those exposed, postexposure prophylaxis, decontamination of the environment, and additional research needs. Of the numerous biological agents that may be used as weapons, the Working Group on Civilian Biodefense has identified a limited number of organisms that could cause disease and deaths in sufficient numbers to cripple a city or region. Anthrax is one of the most serious of these diseases.

Biography of Stephen Hawking Essay -- Stephen Hawking Lou Gehrig’s Dis

Biography of Stephen Hawking Stephen Hawking was born on January 8, 1942. He is the first child of Frank and Isabel Hawking. During the second World War, Isabel was sent from her husband’s home in Highgate, to Oxford. This was considered a much safer place to have children during the war. Soon after his birth, his family moved back in together in their north London home. Hawking began his schooling here at Hertfordshire School. Hawking moved only once during his childhood, to Saint Albans, a small town about 20 miles away from North London. His father, Frank, moved to the Institute for Medical Research in 1950. The rest of the family moved to St. Albans to make it easier to get to Mill Hill, where the Institute was located. When the family moved, Hawking began attending St. Albans High School for Girls. The school accepted boys that were ten years old or younger. When he became too old to go this school, he switched to St. Albans School. At the age of 11, his father wanted him to go to Westminster Public School. To go there, he had to take the scholarship exam. On the day of the exam, Hawking was too ill to take the exam so he stayed at St. Albans School. Hawking said that â€Å"I got an education there that was as good as, if not better than, that I would have received at Westminster.† As Hawking got older, he wanted to study mathematics. He had been inspired by his math teacher, but his father disagreed with his choice. His father persuaded him to switch his main course of study to Physics. Hawking’s father had gone to University College, Oxford and wanted Hawking to go there too. At the time, math was not a course there, and Hawking’s father used that as part of his argument in persuading Hawking not to take mathematics. In March 1959, Hawking took an exam to get into University College in Oxford. He felt that he had not done well on the test, but was still awarded a scholarship to go. Once he got in, his goal was to study Natural Sciences and ended up specializing in Physics. He was awarded a first class degree in 1962. He barely made the first class degree and said it was made hard for him because â€Å"The prevailing attitude at Oxford at that was very anti-Work. You were supposed to brilliant without effort, or accept your limitations and get a fourth class degree. To work hard to get a better class of degree was regarded as t... ...ventually be transmitted back out in a garbled form. Hawking has been portrayed on many tv shows. Cartoons he has been in include Dexter’s Laboratory, Futurama, Dilbert, The Simpsons, Family Guy, and Pinky and the Brain. He also appeared in Star Trek: The Next Generation and on Late Night With Conan O’Brian doing a skit with Jim Carrey. One website has a Hawking-like synthesizer voice who raps about physics called â€Å"MC Hawking† He lent his voice to â€Å"Keep Talking† by Pink Floyd for Division Bell. He was even once featured in a satirical newspaper called The Onion. The newspaper ran an article that said Hawking’s head was mounted on top of a super robotic cyborg body, which also had laser guided missiles and a jetpack. Hawking jokingly sent them a letter cursing them for exposing his evil plot to take over the world. Hawking is also a supporter of several major causes. He has agreed to take part in a protest against the war in Iraq. He appeared on a broadcast for the Labour Party. He is an active supporter of Children’s Charity. Overall, Hawking is a great man. He is an inspiration and genius. He is a great man in his family, in science, and in the community.